MODULE 3
Power: Meaning, Dimensions, Types and Consequences
ADSDefining Power
Power in its broadest sense, as stated by Heywood (2007) is the ability to achieve a desired outcome and is sometimes seen as the ‘power to’ do something. He further explained that in the context of politics and governance, power is usually thought of as a relationship: the ability to influence the behaviour of others or having ‘power over’ people and the ability to punish or reward.
Dimensions or Faces of Power
According to Heywood (2007), the following are the various ways how power is exercised by members of society. These are called dimensions or faces of power: Power as Decision-Making, Power as Agenda Setting and Power as Thought Control.
Power as Decision-Making
This face of power consists of conscious actions that in some way influence the content of decisions. Identifying who has power is done by analysing decisions in the light of the known preferences of the actors involved. The implication of this view of power is that the most powerful actors in society are those whose opinion are considered and upheld in the decision making. The powerful are able to get what they want and make others behave the way they wanted them to. According to Boulding (1989) as cited by Heywood (2007), decisions can be influenced in a variety of ways distinguished between the use of force or intimidation (the stick), productive exchanges involving mutual gain (the deal), and the creation of obligations, loyalty and commitment (the kiss).
Power as Agenda Setting
The second face of power as further discussed by Heywood (2007) is the ability to prevent decisions being made: that is, in effect, ‘non-decision-making’. This according to him involves the ability to set or control the political agenda, thereby preventing issues or proposals from being aired in the first place.
Power as Thought Control
The third face of power, still according to Heywood (2007) is the ability to influence another by shaping what he or she thinks, wants, or needs. This is power expressed as ideological indoctrination or psychological control. In political life, the exercise of this form of power is seen in the use of propaganda and, more generally, in the impact of ideology which you learned from Module 2.
Types of Power
According to French and Raven (1959) as cited by Yukl (1989), there are different types of power, namely: reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert power and referent power. Read the power taxonomy below in order for you to understand more about the types of power.
Power Taxonomy
| Type of Power | Description |
|---|---|
| Reward power | The target person complies in order to obtain rewards he or she believes are controlled by the agent. |
| Coercive power | The target person complies in order to avoid punishments he or she believes are controlled by the agent. |
| Legitimate power | The target person complies because he or she believes the agent has the right to make the request and the target person has the obligation to comply. |
| Expert power | The target person complies because he or she believes that the agent has special knowledge about the best way to do something. |
| Referent power | The target person complies because he or she admires or identifies with the agent and wants to gain the agent’s approval. |
Consequences of Power
There are three consequences of power according to Yukl (1989): compliance, commitment and resistance. He further stressed that employing certain types of power in particular ways may result into these consequences. Study his explanations below:
Compliance means readiness or act of agreeing to do something.
The two types of power most likely to cause compliance are legitimate or position power and reward power.
➢ Compliance with the order may occur if it is perceived to be within the leader’s scope of authority.
➢ Compliance is most likely to happen if the reward is something valued by the target person.
Commitment is an even more desirable outcome because of the trust and emotional pledge that it causes. It is perceived as loyalty or a sense of dedication or devotion. Commitment is most likely to be the consequence when the powers used are referent and expert.
➢ The common way to exercise referent power is merely to ask someone with whom one has a friendship to do something.
➢ Expert power may result to commitment if the leader presents logical arguments and supporting evidence for a particular proposal, order or policy. It will depend on the leader’s credibility and persuasive communication skills in addition to technical knowledge and logical or analytical ability.
➢ Commitment is a very unlikely consequence if coercive power is employed.
Resistance means to refuse or to oppose. It is the most likely outcome when coercive power is used in a hostile or manipulative way. (Yukl 1989)
According to Heywood (2007), it is best to use coercion power in preventing behaviour that is harmful to the society and well-being of the people such as illegal and violent activities.
ADSQuarter 1 – Module 4: States, Nations, and Globalization
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
Lesson 1 – State and Nation
Lesson 2 – Globalization
After going through this module, you are expected to:
define nation and state;
differentiate nation and state;
explain meanings of globalization;
evaluate how globalization influences state and nation; and
analyze the relationship among nations and states in the context of globalization.
Meaning of State
According to De Leon (2009), as stated by Liao (2014) a state is a community of nations more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience and enjoying freedom from external control.
(Note: the images beside this text show a family portrait, a flag being raised, a government building, and a map of the Philippines.)
Elements of a State
Liao (2014) further explains that states are created based on the elements mentioned below. According to him, if these requirements are not followed or if there is a conflict or issue in one of the elements, the legitimacy of the state is always challenged. He further emphasized that it is important that a state is recognized by the international community, because without recognition, its existence, authority and power are always in doubt.
People is the organization of human beings living together as a community.
Territory refers to the territorial domains over which the state exercises control or sovereignty which includes all the land, sea and airspace the state exercises jurisdiction on.
Government is an agency to which the political ideology of the state is expressed and carried out.
Sovereignty it is the power of the state to enforce the law over its people within its jurisdiction and demand obedience from them.
Two Types of Sovereignty
There are two types of sovereignty according to Liao (2014).
Internal Sovereignty – the power of the state to command authority within its jurisdiction.
External Sovereignty – the power and freedom of the state to carry out its activities without foreign domination or control.
Duties of the State
According to Liao (2014) the following are the concerns of the state which are also considered as its duties or responsibilities.
Peace and order and national security
Political harmony or good laws
Social justice
Economic development
Individual and collective development of people
Meaning of Nation
A nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics and shares the same history, ancestry, culture, and language. Liao (2014)
Anderson (2006) asserted, as mentioned by Liao (2014) that nations were “imagined communities” – it is imagined because even though people do not know each other or do not meet all the members, they share the same common history, culture, language and tradition that are practiced by every member; they have the same feelings of belongingness and talk the same events that were part of their history even though they were miles away from one another.
State and nation are often used interchangeably. Although many people think they are the same, in context and concept the words nation and state are vastly different from one another. State and nation’s functionalities and attributes can be used to analyse the difference between the two terms.
ADSQuarter 1 – Module 5: Evolution of Philippine Politics and Governance
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
Lesson 1 – The Spanish to Japanese Colonial Period
Lesson 2 – The Third to Fifth Republic of the Philippines
After going through this module, you are expected to:
analyze the evolution of Philippine Politics and Governance.
Pre-Spanish Government
As stated by Buenaflor (2016), the Philippines was occupied by people from nearby islands and form themselves into barangay. He mentions that the barangay was the local government unit headed by a Rajah or Datu. Maginoos who act as the Council of Elders assisted the Datu in implementing rules pass judgment and penalties to maintain peace and order.
(Note: the image beside this text shows an illustration of a barangay village with nipa huts, palm trees, and people gathered together.)
The Spanish Government until the Japanese Military Administration
To learn more about the evolution of Philippine politics and government, read the explanations below from Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor (2016).
The Spanish Government
According to Agoncillo (2012), Spain established a centralized colonial government in the Philippines that was composed of a national government and the local governments that administered provinces, cities, towns and municipalities. He further mentions that the governor general, as the King’s representative and the highest-ranking official in the Philippines exercised certain legislative powers: he issued proclamations to facilitate the implementation of laws.
On the setting of local government, Agoncillo (2012) states that the Spaniards created local government units to facilitate the country’s administration. The two types of local government units were the alcadia and the corregimiento. The alcadia, led by the alcalde mayor, governed the provinces that had been fully controlled by the Spaniards. According to Garcia (2015), the corregimiento, headed by the corregidor, governed the provinces that were not yet entirely under Spanish control). The alcalde mayores represented the Spanish king and the governor general in their respective provinces. Each province was divided into several towns or pueblos headed by Gobernadorcillos, whose main concerns were efficient governance and tax collection. (Agoncillo 2012)
The Katipunan Government
Agoncillo (2012) narrates that the Katipunan was a secret society that led the revolution on August 26, 1896. It was organized by Andres Bonifacio with a structure that has a central government vested in a Supreme Council. Referring to the other aspects of Katipunan structure, Garcia (2015) mentions that in each province there was Provincial Council; in each town a Popular Council; and the Judicial Power was exercised by a Judicial Council. The Katipunan was replaced by another government whose officials headed by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo as President were elected in Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897. (Agoncillo 2012)
Biak-na-Bato Republic
On November 1, 1897, a republic was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo in Biak-na-Bato (now San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan) through the Biak-na-Bato Constitution. (Garcia 2015)
Biak-na-Bato Republic declared that the aim of the revolution was the “separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and their formation into an independent state”. The Biak-na-Bato Republic lasted up to December 15, 1897 with conclusion of the “Pact of Biak-na-Bato”-a peace agreement between the Spanish Government and the revolutionary forces. (Agoncillo 2012)
Emilio Aguinaldo’s Dictatorial Government
The “Pact of Biak-na-Bato” failed and Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines and resumed the fighting against the Spaniards. With military victories under his leadership, according to Agoncillo (2012), Aguinaldo decided that it was time to establish a Filipino government. He formed the Dictatorial Government on May 24, 1898. The most important achievements of Dictatorial Government were the Proclamation of the Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898 and the reorganizations of local governments. (Agoncillo 2012)
First Philippine Republic
A Congress was convened in January 1899 in Barasoain Church and through the Malolos Constitution, inaugurated the First Philippine Republic- the first Asian democracy to be established during the Philippine Revolution that ended the more than 300 years of Spanish colonial rule in the Islands. (Agoncillo 2012)
The American Colonial Period
Three kinds of government were created during the American Occupational Period: (1) military government; (2) civil government; and (3) commonwealth government. (Buenaflor 2016). Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor (2016) further explains the following:
American Military Government According to Buenaflor (2016), the American military rule in the Philippines began on April 4, 1898. Garcia (2015) explains that under this setting, the President of the United States had the power to establish a military government in the Philippines, as Commander-in-Chief of all Armed Forces of the United States. His authority was delegated to the military governor who exercised all powers of the government as long as the war lasted (Garcia 2015). First was Wesley Merritt, the second was General Elwell Otis and the third and last was Major General Arthur MacArthur (Buenaflor 2016).
Civil Government Pursuant to the so-called Spooner Amendment (on the Army appropriation act passed in the US Congress on March 3, 1901) which ended the military regime in the Philippines, the Civil Government was inaugurated in Manila on July 4, 1901 (Garcia 2015). The position of the Civil Governor was created on October 29, 1901 and exercised Legislative powers. He remained as President of Philippine Commission, the sole law-making body of the government from 1901 to 1907 (Agoncillo 2012). From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Commission acted as the upper house of the Legislative branch with the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house. After the passage of the Spooner Law in 1916, these two bodies gave way to the Philippine Legislature. The Philippines was represented in the United States by two Resident Commissioners who were elected the Philippine Legislature (Garcia 2015).
The Commonwealth Government
The next chapter on the political development of the country was the establishment of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines. Agoncillo (2012), Garcia (2015) and Buenaflor (2016) explains that in pursuant to an act of United States Congress on March 24, 1934, commonly known was the Tydings Mc Duffie Law, the law provided for a transition period of ten years during which the Philippine Commonwealth would operate and at the expiration of the said period on July 4, 1946, the independence of the Philippines would be proclaimed and established.
The Commonwealth Government of the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, following the first national election held on September 12, 1935 under the 1935 Constitution. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, won as President and Vice President respectively. (Agoncillo 2012)
The Japanese Military Administration
It was established in Manila on January 3, 1942, one day after its occupation by the Japanese forces. Under a proclamation issued by the Japanese High Command, the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines was declared terminated. (Buenaflor 2016)
According to Buenaflor (2016), civil government known as the Philippine Executive Commission composed of Filipinos was organized by the Japanese with Jorge B. Vargas as chairman of the said commission. The Commission exercised both the executive and legislative powers. Buenaflor 2016) clarifies that the laws enacted were, however, subject to the approval of the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Forces. The Judiciary continued in the same form as it was under the Commonwealth although it functioned without the independence which it had traditionally enjoyed (Buenaflor 2016). In this government, Jose P. Laurel became the President of the second Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943 (Agoncillo 2012).
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